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1951 

MATERIALS SURVEY 


BEDDING FEATHERS AND DOWNS 



Distributed by 
Materials Office 

National Security Resources Board 


Prepared by the 
United States,Tariff Commission 


September 1951 








IMITED STATES TARUT’ COIMSSION 



/^C"/ 


Oscar B. Ryder, Chairman 

Lynn R, Edminster, Vice Chairman 

Edgar B. Brossard 

E. Dana Durand 

John P. Gregg 

George McGill 

Donn N. Bent, Secretary 




Address all communications 
UNITED STATES TARIFF COMMISSION 




FOREWORD 

This report is one of a series which the Tariff Commission is pre¬ 
paring on selected industrial materials. The materials covered in this 
series are mainly raw materials which are of special interest in connec¬ 
tion with the mobilization of the Nation’s resources for defense. However, 
the series also includes some more advanced, or intermediate, products 
which are materials for further manufacture. 

The general objective in each report is to present in concise form 
background facts bearing on the outlook for supply and demand in the years 
immediately ahead. The reports in this series summarize for each material 
salient economic and statistical information on uses, consimption, United 
States production, imports and exports, and other data pertinent to United 
States needs and supplies. The individual reports in the series are being 
released as rapidly as they are completed. 

In the preparation of this report the Tariff Commission had the ser^ 
vices of William T. Hart and other members of its staff. 


(TC27299) 



COOTENTS 


- Page 

Introduction— --— --— --— -—1 

Description and uses------—--1- 2 

World production and trade-—--- 5 

Europe----------- 9 

Asia------—---- 11 

Production and trade in the United States: 

Consumption------——•—•— -13 

Production- 15 

Inserts: 

Import trends----—--—------ 20 

Tariff status—:- 24 

Exports-------——- 25 

Prices-----—-—---—-- 26 

Problems in current United States supply and procurement——31 
















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TABLES 


Pagc e 

1. Bedding feathers: Exports from principal countries, by 

declared destination, 1938— - 8 

2. Ducks and geese: Number on reporting farms in the United 

States on specified dates, 1890 to 1940—---—-- 16 

3. Crude feathers for beds: United States imports for con¬ 

sumption, by principal sources, specified year-s 1937 

to 1950 and January-May 1951—--—-----—- 21 

4c Crude feathers: United States exports of domestic mer¬ 
chandise, by principal markets, specified years 1937 
uo 1950———-—-------—<— 27 

5« Bedding feathers and down: Basic ceiling prices set by 

the Office of Price Administration, in May 1943— --—— 28 


6. Bedding feathers and down: Prices c.i.f. New York City 
for three representative kinds of waterfowl feathers 
from China, by quarters, 1948, 1950, and January 1951- 


30 














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BEDDING FEATHERS AND DOWNS 


Introduction 

During World War II, waterfowl feathers and down—feathers and down 
of coiranon barnyard ducks and geese—became of strategic importance when 
our armed forces recognized the utility of this commodity for military 
sleeping bags and flying suits. The combination of qualities inherent in 
waterfowl feathers and down—a very high degree of insulation, lightness 
of weight, compressibility, and resiliency—is not duplicated naturally 
or artificially in any other product. 

Although a very large quantity of feathers is consumed in the United 
States each year in the production of such articles as pillows, beds, com¬ 
forters, and upholstered furniture, little public attention is given their 
use in the normal peacetime economy. The Korean conflict and the general 
preparedness program, however, have again focused attention on the mili¬ 
tary uses of waterfowl feathers, feathers for which the United States 
depends largely upon imports. As the domestic supply of these feathers 
would be far below the quantity reqiJired in the event of all-out war, they 
are being stockpiled against such an emergency, and virtually the entire 
supply of both new and used goose and duck feathers and down is being re¬ 
served for defense requirements pursuant to an order issued by the 
National Production Authority on April 16, 1951. This report deals with 
all types of feathers—chicken and turkey, as well as waterfowl—which 
are used for bedding, but primary attention is given to waterfowl feathers 
and downs because of their importance in national defense preparations. 


2 


Description and Uses 

Birds have three kinds of feathers: Contour, down, and filoplume. 
Contour feathers are feathers which form the outline of a bird. The con¬ 
tour feathers on the body of a bird are usually soft and pliant, while 
those on the wings, known as ’'flight feathers,” and those of the tail 
have very rigid stems and hard, smooth surfaces. Down feathers, which 
are usually found only on waterfowl, such as ducks, geese, swans, and 
gulls, form a thick undercoating generally hidden by the contour feathers. 
The important difference between down and countour feathers is that a down 
feather consists of an irregularly spherical mass of fibers emanating from 
a common quill point and extending in all three dimensions, whereas a con¬ 
tour feather consists of a rigid central quill shaft or stem from which 
fibers extend on two sides, giving the feather essentially two dimensions, 
length and width. Differences in structure between the fibers of down and 
the fibers of contour feathers make down a- better insulator and, on the 
whole, more resilient than contour feathers. These advantages, together 
with the facts that there is a relatively great demand for down and that 
only about 18 percent of a waterfowl's plumage is dovm, make down commer¬ 
cially much more valuable than contour feathers. 

Filoplumes are degenerate structures having a superficial resemblance 
to hair and appearing in small clusters around the base of contour feath¬ 
ers. Contour feathers and downs both have several commercial uses; 
filoplumes have none. 


3 


The term "feathers** is used in this report to designate contour body 
feathers, and the term "down** to designate pure dom. Contour body feath¬ 
ers and down are used chiefly as filling materials in bedding and uphol¬ 
stery, and when used for such purposes are commonly called bedding feathers. 
Flight feathers are not ordinarily used as a filling material because of 
the very large stem and stiff fibers. The resilience of feathers and 
downs makes them particularly suitable as a filling material in chair and 
sofa cushions and in pillows. Because feathers and down, especially doi^, 
are one of the best forms of insulation and are extremely soft and light 
in weight, they are an unexcelled filling material for comforters, sleep¬ 
ing bags, flying suits, and certain types of winter clothing. Contour body 
feathers used as filling materials are obtained chiefly from domesticated 
ducks, geese, chickens, and turkeys, and down is obtained chiefly from 
ducks and geese. 

Contour body feathers generally have a slight curve from base to tip. 
The greater the curvature, the greater the resilience of the feather, and 
consequently, the greater its value for filling purposes. Goose feathers 
have the greatest curvature, duck feathers are less curved, and chicken 
and turkey feathers are almost flat. Pure down has a greater resilience 
than any kind of feathers. Goose feathers have numerous dovrn-liks fibers 
at the base; these fibers enhance the resilience of the goose feathers, 
and hence their value. Duck feathers have fewer such downy fibers, and 
chicken and turkey feathers have none. 


4 


Although the color of feathers and down has no relationship to their 
qualities as filling materials, it affects their commercial value. Actual 
colors vary, but feathers are classed commercially as white and gray, 
white feathers bringing a higher price than gray feathers of comparable 
quality. White feathers of all kinds and gray goose feathers are uniform 
in shade. ’’Gray” duck, chicken, and turkey feathers are mixtures of 
variously colored feathers. 

Feathers and downs are used in several forms for filling purposes. 

While the bulk are simply cleaned and used in their natural state, others 
are further processed. "Stripped feathers," or "schleiss," are feathers 
which have been torn along the stem to loosen the down-like fibers and 
clusters at the base of the stem. These loose fibers, like natural down, 
are combined with other feathers to give increased resilience. In central 
Europe white goose feathers are sometimes treated in this way to increase 
their value. Smll stripped feathers are often added to commercial mix¬ 
tures of feathers and down to enhance their volume for filling purposes. 
"Chopped feathers" have been put through a machine designed to cut them in 
half. "Curled feathers," also called "crushed feathers," have been passed 
through a curling machine in which some of the feathers are actually curled, 
although most of them are merely crushed and broken into their constituent 
fibers. Large feathers of little value are usually chopped or crushed, and 
thus converted into a soft, fibrous mass which has some filling qualities. 
"Feather fiber," the fiber separated from this soft mass of broken quills 
and feathers by "blowing," is sometimes used as an adulterant of down. 
Chicken feathers are frequently curled or crushed. 


5 


Feathers and down, after being cleaned, are mechanically separated 

r • 

into pure down and feathers of graduated sizes. These components are 
then remixed in percentages suitable for the intended use. For uphol¬ 
stered furniture a favored mixture is 50 percent down and 50 percent 
goose feathers. Better grades of furniture contain a mixture of as much 
as 70 percent down with 30 percent goose feathers, while lower grades 
contain as little as 20 percent down with 80 percent duck feathers. 
Chicken feathers are not ordinarily used in upholstered furniture, ex¬ 
cept as an adulterant. Various mixtures of waterfowl feathers and down 
go into comforters and pillows. Specifications for the sleeping bags 
used by the armed forces call for a mixture of 40 percent down and 60 
percent waterfowl feathers of a certain size. Chicken feathers are 
largely used in the United States and some parts of Europe in inexpensive 
pillows. Turkey feathers are frequently mixed with chicken feathers and 
sold as chicken feathers. 

World Production and Trade 

The natural superiority, for filling purposes, of waterfowl feathers 
and down over chicken feathers determines in general the pattern of world 
production and trade in bedding feathers. In many parts of the world 
chicken feathers are not considered even a possible substitute for water- 
fowl feathers as a filling material, and though modern processing methods 
and the development of mechanical means of curling and crushing have made 
chicken feathers usable in inexpensive pillows, they have found but a 
limited acceptance, and that only in the United States and some parts of 


6 


western Europe. The price of chicken feathers has usually remained so 
low as to warrant collection of only a very small part of the potential 
supply. The eastern European countries and China, where ducks and geese 
are important in the diet, provide the bulk of the world supply of bedding 
feathers. 

World commercial production of crude bedding feathers during the 
late 1930 's is estimated to have exceeded 70 million pounds annually« 

About half this amount was produced in eastern Europe—Hungary, Poland, 
Yugoslavia, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union; about one- 
fourth in China; and the remaining fourth in the United States. Water- 
fowl feathers comprise roughly 90 percent of the production of all coun¬ 
tries except the United States, where less than 10 percent of production is 
waterfowl feathers, the rest being chicken feathers. The collection of 
chicken feathers in the United States increased substantially during 
World War II, and has since remained at a higher level than in prewar 
years. Although a reliable estimate of postwar world production of 
feathers is not available, the trade reports it to be considerably below 
that of prewar years. 

In general, feathers move in international trade from eastern Europe 
and eastern Asia to western Europe and North America, Before World War II, 
Germany and the United States were the largest consumers of feathers, 
Germany, however, was by far the most important consumer of waterfowl 
feathers—the feathers which move in international trade—and consequently 
usually dominated the world market, German imports of crude bedding feath¬ 
ers reached almost 19 million pounds in some prewar years, nearly double 


7 


the largest amount ever iinpcxrted by the United States in any year. The 
United States, nevertheless, is one of the principal importers of water- 
fowl feathers c. 

Because the United States raises relatively few waterfowl, this 
country depends on imports to supply about 85 percent of its demand for 
waterfowl feathers. On the other hand, the United States is the world’s 
largest producer and exporter of chicken feathers, making shipments 
principally to western Europe. 

Table 1 shows exports of bedding feathers from the principal produc¬ 
ing countries, by declared destination, for 1938, one of the few years in 
which separate export data for most of the producing countries are avail¬ 
able. The data shown are representative of the relative output of the 
principal producing countries and the distribution of trade prior to 
World War II. International trade in feathers in 1938, however, was, 
for several reasons, only about 80 percent as great as in the immediately 
preceding and following years; the quantities shown for each country, 
therefore, should not be taken as representative of the absolute amount 
of prewar exports. Data for exports from the Soviet Union and Taiwan 
(Formosa), also important sources, are not available; consequently, no 
combined totals are given in the table. 


8 


Table lo—Bedding feathers: Exports from principal countries, \/ by 
declared destination, 1938 


(In thousands of pounds) 


Country 

Total 

Declared destination 

Germany 

United 

Kingdom 

Hong 

Kong 

Denmark 

United 

States 

China— 

8,133 

5,562 

5,072 

4,963 

4,478 

2,757 

1,728 

1,551 

1,367 

2,575 

4,292 

10 

498 

901 

2,721 

1,406 

885 

1,266 

135 

242 

2,225 

1,779 

3 

4 

2/ 4,156 

338 

165 

1,928 

534 

803 

449 

499 

248 

386 

2 


United States- 

- 

Poland—>——- 
Yugoslavia—— 





258 

58 


Czechoslovakia 
Italy _ - 

66 

8 


187 

2 







Declared destination—con. 


Austria 

Switzer¬ 

land 

France 

Czecho- 
alnvakla 

Norway 

Yugo¬ 

slavia 

China 



132 

72 

177 


31 


HnnorflT»v 

121 

384 

616 

y 

17 

711 

83 

131 

13 


iAlXlI^GiX Jr 

United States- 

394 

11 

X X wkAAvw***" ■ 

203 

4 

247 

23 

40 

p 


388 

Yugoslavia—^— 

11 

1 

X V vCAUOk A A A d ** * *" ^ ^'■• ** 

Czechoslovakia 

Italy— 

167 

36 

48 

88 

31 






** 


Declared destination—con. 


Italy 

Sweden 

Belgium- 

Luxembourg 

Nether¬ 

lands 

Canada 

All 

other 

China — — 



26 

y 

19 

206 



291 

(7£> y^r 

7 

5 

11 

5 

182 


United States- 

V'T'ormo 

# 

186 

104 

421 

267 

Pr»Tfln/^ ^ 

326 

3 

255 . 

12 

1 


X V./JLCfcAX'-l*'*^****^®** 

Yugoslavia—— 

PiiTTinn i a 

- 

- 

- 

1 V ixiuci IX X a "=•**>*»* 

Czechoslovakia 
Italy— — 

12 

1 

5 

6 

1 

38 

10 








\J The Soviet Union and Taiwan (Formosa) are also large producers of bed¬ 
ding feathers, but statistics on exports of feathers from these countries in 
1938 are not available^ Exports from Taiwan in 1950 amounted to 1»7 million 
pounds, 

2/ Hong Kong is a point of transshipment of feathers chiefly from southern 
China, but also from other oriental countries, to European and American markets. 
In 1938, 31 percent of feather exports from Hong Kong went to Germany, 31 per« 
cent to the United States, and 27 percent to the United Kingdomo 
J/ Less than 500 pounds. 

Sources Compiled from official statistics of the governments of the 

exnortlncr ftowntries- 





















































9 


The annual collection of feathers in Europe (including European 
Russia) in prewar years is estimated to have ranged from 30 to 40 million 
poundso Though data are not available on postwar production of most of 
the European countries, the general consensus of the trade is that post¬ 
war collections have not reached prewar levels. This lower production 
is due partly to the disruption caused by World War II, but also, it is 
asserted, to the effect of changed governmental policies in eastern 
Europe. The general size of flocks has been substantially reduced by 
land reform programs, and reportedly also by absolute limitations on the 
number of fowl a private individual is permitted to own. About 65 per¬ 
cent of European output (in quantity) is goose feathers, 25 percent duck 
feathers, and 10 percent chicken feathers; in value the proportion for 
chicken feathers is much lower. Some attempt is made to grade crude 
European feathers, but the grades are not standardized because .of rather 
extensive sorting and separation of down from feathers at all levels of 
collection. In view of this lack of standardization, European feathers 
are usually sold by sample. Hungary and Poland are usually the most 
important European producers of feathers with the possible exception of 
the Soviet Union, for which precise data are not available. France is 
also a large producer; a considerable part of the reported exports of 
feathers from France, however, are actually reexports of feathers received 
from eastern European countries. Germany is a substantial producer, but 
it consumes virtually all of its domestic output, in addition to its 
large imports. 


10 


Roughly 75 percent of total output of the principal European produc¬ 
ing countries is exported; for some of these countries, feathers rank 
among the first 10 export products. Before the war, the collection, 
processing, and exportation of feathers in Hungary and Poland was under 
the control of government-supported cartels. Since the war, exportation 
of feathers from all the eastern European producing countries has been 
under either direct control or general surveillance of the respective 
governments. 

Western European countries—particularly Germany, the United 
Kingdom, and Denmark—are the principal consumers of feathers produced 
in Europe, but the United States is also an important market for these 
feathers. During the war, 75 percent of the German feather-processing 
industry was destroyed. This fact, plus the general inability of Germany 
and other western European countries to import goods in the years imme¬ 
diately after the war, resulted in a world price level for feathers 
lower than normal. Germany reentered the international market in 1948, 
the Federal Republic of Germany (which does not include the Soviet Zone) 
importing 600,000 pounds of crude feathers in that year, 6,3 million 
pounds in 1949, and 13.2 million pounds in 1950. This last figure is 
substantial in comparison with imports into all Germany in 1938 of about 
18.7 million pounds. The increased buying by Germany after 1948 was one 
of the factors leading to generally higher feather prices throughout the 
world. 


11 


Asia ; . -vj..' 

r;^Chinathe world’s largest single producer of waterfowl feathers. 
The annual collection of feathers in China in some prewar years amounted 
to almost 15 million pounds, virtually all of which were waterfowl feath¬ 
ers, Feather collections in China' since World Warjll have been substan¬ 
tially below-^hose of prewar years, for several reasons, ..Production in 
China^hasibeenfhamperedvby a long period of wariand internal unrest. 

In the late [1930 *s-the strong effort of the Japanese Government to gain 
complete .control of China ’ s ^ feather trade i-badlyiodisorganized the norma'l 
Chinese,collection channels, [ More recently, control of exports by the 
Chinese Communist, Government/, and ..the limitation of the'export trade in 
feathers to-barter for heavy.,machinery and similar products have report¬ 
edly discouraged collection,: In addition to these more "direct influences, 
the price pfrfeathers in the immediate postwar'years was generally ^de-^- 
pressed in ^:relation tq prices, of other products'because <5f the absence 
of Germany and ^pther important ‘feather consumers from ([the market:,' and 
this tended to decrease collection in China, as elsewhere,' . -r 

In contrast to European production,.’jWhich is predominantly goose 
feathers, China/s.production is usually J70.to 80^percent'duck feathers, : 
Chicken feathers-,appear in,.trade in China -only as an adulterant of r .y.j'iai 
waterfowl feathers. Feathers produced in China are sold in several . 
standard grades, designated usually by the kind of feather (duck or 
goose), the area where the feathers originated, the minimum down con¬ 
tent, and the maximum dirt and chicken-feather content. Exporters 


12 


feel it is to the general advantage of the Chinese trade to maintain 
these standard grades. As these grades are more easily maintained with 
crude feathers, extensive sorting or manipulation by primary collectors 
is discouraged, and processing by them is limited to drying, dusting, 
and the removal of quills and excess chicken feathers. 

Feathers are collected in China almost entirely for export; not 
more than 2 percent of the output of that country is retained for domes¬ 
tic use. Shanghai is normally the largest center of collection and 
export, handling the feathers which originate in northern China. Pre¬ 
war trade through that port was usually well over 60 percent of the 
total for the country. Feathers from southern and central China are 
exported chiefly from the Chinese port of Canton to Hong Kong, where 
they are transshipped to world markets. Hong Kong is normally the 
second most important feather center in the Orient, receiving for 
processing and reexport feathers from Indochina, British Malaya, Siam, 
Burma, Indonesia, and other oriental countries, in addition to those 
received from China. 

The season for delivering feathers to the large traders and ex¬ 
porters in Shanghai and Kong Kong runs from September to May, the 
largest volume reaching these centers in December and Janxiary. Ex¬ 
ports are sold by the picul of 133-1/3 pounds and shipped in compressed 
bales of approximately 420 pounds from Shanghai and approximiately 150 
pounds from Hong Kong. Before World War II, Germany was usually the 
principal market for China’s feather output, -’receiving in some years 


13 


almost half of that country’s total feather exports (including exports 
through Hong Kong). The United States ordinarily was second in im¬ 
portance, and the United Kingdom third. Denmark also received sub¬ 
stantial quantities. Exports from China in 1947, the latest year for 
which statistics are available, amounted to 5.B million pounds, less 
than half the average prewar level. 

Taiv'an (Formosa) is also the source of a substantial quantity of 
feathers. Data on prewar exports from Taiwan are not available; ex¬ 
ports in 1950 amounted to 1.7 million pounds. 

Production and Trade in the United States 


Consumption 

United States consumption of crude bedding feathers since World War 
II is estimated to have ranged from 25 to 30 million pounds annually. 
Roughly one-third (8-10 million pounds of the total quantity) was im¬ 
ported waterfowl feathers, about 5 percent (1-2 million pounds) was 
domestically supplied waterfowl feathers, and the remainder was chicken 
feathers from domestic sources. 

A steadily increasing population has resulted in a long-term upward 
trend in United States feather consumption. The growth of the feather¬ 
processing industry and the increase in the commercial trade in feathers, 
however, have been much greater than the actml increase in feather con- 
sinnption. Before World War I, most bedding feathers used in the United 
States came from waterfowl raised in this country, and a very large 
part was used by the farm family which raised the ducks and geese for 



14 


meat. Commercial collection was small and was not centralized to the 
extent that it is today. The large'commercial demand for feathers 
developed chiefly from the necessity of supplying a greatly increased 
urban population with pillows and other bedding articles, and from 
the gradual change on the part of farm families to a practice of buying 
these articles formerly made in the..home largely from home-raised 
feathers. The great decrease in waterfowl ..on American farms, necessi¬ 
tating the importation of waterfowl feathers, and the increased use of 
chicken feathers, which must be curled or crushed by machinery before 
they can be used in fillings, have also contributed to the growth of 
the commercial feather business. 

The rate of increase in the consumption of pillows, down comforters, 
and furniture stuffed with feathers has been greater than the rate of 
increase in national income. Consumption of such articles since World 
War II has been abnormally high because virtually no waterfowl feathers 
were available for civilian use during the war. The effect of the 
accumulated demand continued until 1949, when consumption began to 
decline. 

The demand for feathers in the United States increased very substan¬ 
tially during World War II, owing to the need of the greatly enlarged 
armed forces for pillows and sleeping bags. Pillows for barracks use 
are filled with chicken feathers; those for hospital use, with waterfowl 
feathers. Sleeping bags, particularly important for warfare in cold 
climates, are filled with waterfowl feathers. The defense preparations 
now under way are again resulting in a large military demand for feathers. 


15 


Production 

United States commercial collection of crude feathers since World 
War II is estimated to have ranged from approximately 18 to 23 million 
pounds annually; waterfowl feathers accounted for about 1.5 to 2 million 
pounds, and chicken feathers for the remainder. In addition to these 
feathers commercially collected and processed, some feathers, chiefly 
waterfowl, are still being saved and used by farm families. Official 
statistics on domestic production either before or since World War II are 
not available. 

Waterfowl feathers are produced in the United States principally on 
commercial duck farms, maiiy of which are located on Long Island, New York. 
Because the Long Island farmers, the predominant group in the market, raise 
Pekin ducks, commercially the most successful breed, ducks of that species 
are known throughout the country as Long Island ducks. Feathers from this 
source are taken from ’’green” ducks (those about 8 weeks old); these 
feathers do not have the full gsrowth of feathers from mature birds. Total 
output of crude ’’Long Island duqk” feathers is about 1-| to 1-J- million pounds 
annually. The commercial duck farmers, who slaughter their own birds and 
prepare them for market, collect the feathers and sell the bulk of them 
through a cooperative sales agency which acts as the sole agent for members 
of the Long Island Duck Growers Association. Crude feathers sold by this 
agency, designated as XL Duck or XLDUX feathers, are usually much cleaner 
than other crude domestic feathers and crude feathers imported from China. 

The Midwestern States, particularly Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota, 
supply commercially from 300,000 to 500,000 pounds of crude waterfowl 



16 


feathers annually. Most of these feathers corae from mature birds raised 
on small farms and sold to large packing plants for slaughter. The chief 
center of collection is Chicago. Because these prime domestic ”VJestern’' 
feathers are full size and a large proportion of them are goose feathers, 
they are generally superior to the Long Island duck feathers, which come 
mainly from ’’green” ducks. 

Table 2 shows that there has been a long-term decline in the number of 
waterfowl, especially of geese, in the United States, and hence in the 
potential supply of waterfowl feathers available from domestic sources. 
Between 1890 and 1940 this decline produced a drop in the per capita ratio 
of the number of waterfowl to the population of the United States from .25 

f 

to .02 bird per person. 


Table 2.—Ducks and geese: Number on reporting farms in the 
United States on specified dates, 1890 to 1940 


(In thousands) 


Date 

Ducks 

Geese 

1890 

(June 

1)- 

7,544 

8,440 

1900 

(June 

1)- 

4,786 

5,677 

1910 

(Apr. 

15)-- 

2,907 

4,432 

1920 

(Jan. 

1 )--- 

2,818 

2,939 

1940 

(Apr. 

1)- 

2,460 

635 


Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census, Special Poultry Report. 1940. 


Note.—The differences in the time of the year of the several censuses 
affect somewhat the comparability of the returns. 


This long-range decline in the number of waterfowl in the United States 
has resulted largely from the use of chicken as the predominant fowl in the 
American diet. Within the last decade, however, this decline has been 













17 


accelerated by the high cost of feed and the encroachment of suburban 
housing developments upon the commercial duck-farming area of Long Island. 
The number of ducks and geese raised in a given year is largerj, of course, 
than the number on farms on a specified date within that year. For 1939, 
for exanple, the Census of Agriculture reported 12.1 million ducks and 1.1 
million geese raised in the United States, although in April 1940 only 2.4 
million ducks and 0.6 million geese were on farms, l/ 

The number of ducks raised commercially in a year depends upon the 
relationship between the cost of feed and the price the meat will bring. 
Geese are not raised on the same large-scale commercial basis as ducks. 

Duck production is usually highest when high prices of beef and pork en¬ 
courage a larger demand for the less expensive meats, one of which is duck. 
Ducks for breeding are selected 1 year in advance of the time the raiser 
expects to market meat, and this practice determines within a certain range 
the volume of production 1 year in advance and limits the possibility of 
any sharp increase within a shorter period of time in the number of ducks 
available for marketing. It takes 8 weeks for a duck to reach the size 
at which it is most profitably marketed for meat. 

Waterfowl feathers are only a byproduct of raising ducks and geese for 
meat, and the American farmer gives little consideration to the price of 
waterfowl feathers in determining the size of his flock. As a rule, how¬ 
ever, feathers from commercially raised ducks are saved and marketed. Most 
feathers from ducks and geese slaughtered in large packing plants are also 
saved. Eight or nine commercial **green” ducks (8 weeks old) are required 
1/ U. S. Bureau of the Census. Special Poultry Report. 1940. 





18 


to supply 1 pound of feathers and down (excluding wing and tail feathers), 
whereas about five mature ducks or three mature geese will supply the same 
amount. 

The potential supply of chicken feathers available annually in the 
United States has been estimated at 100 million pounds, a very large quan¬ 
tity. Actually, however, only about one-fifth of this amount, or 20 mil¬ 
lion pounds, has ever been saved and marketed as feathers in any one year. 
The remainder is either used as fertilizer or dumped as trash. 

The use of chicken feathers in the United States has been increasing 
steadily for some years. Collection was once chiefly in Chicago packing 
plants, where feathers from mature fowls were saved. These, marketed as 
’’prime western” fowl feathers, represented the very best quality of chicken 
feathers. In the last decade or so, however, chicken-feather processing 
plants have beei; established in the large broiler-raising areas of the 
Middle Atlantic States. Although feathers from broilers do not have the 
same fullness and stuffing capacity as mature western feathers, broiler 
feathers are the predominant type of chicken feathers used today, chiefly 
because their collection is more economical. Firms processing and using 
broiler feathers usually operate in conjunction with large central poultry 
slaughter houses. The most modern establishments are highly merchanized, 
and the chicken feathers are cleaned and put into pillows within a short 
time after they are plucked from the bird. 

United States commercial production of chicken feathers tends to 
fluctuate more widely than the production of waterfowl feathers. A lag 
in demand for feather articles appears first in the articles containing 


19 


chicken feathers; as the price of these feathers is generally low, a 
slight decrease in prices will halt collection in marginal packing plants 
which own or control no processing facilities. Although the potential 
supply of chicken feathers is very great, any large and unexpected increase 
in demand, such as would result from a sudden expansion in the need for 
pillows by the armed forces, is usually accompanied not only by a sub¬ 
stantial rise in the price of chicken feathers but also by a temporary 
shortage until new centers of collection are established. 

The process of washing, drying, sorting, and crushing or curling 
feathers requires specialized equipment. Such equipment usually is 
custom-built on the basis of specifications of the individual firm ac¬ 
cording to its experience in processing feathers, and therefore, while 
the equipment of all firms is based on the same general principles, it 
is by no means standardized throughout the industry. Very little skilled 
labor is required in processing feathers. 

The feather-processing facilities in use in the United States (which 
are used for processing both domestic and imported feathers) have been 
ample to handle all feathers available up to the present, largely because 
each great and sudden increase in United States demand for feathers has 
been accompanied by circumstances which cut off a substantial part of 
imports. If sufficient quantities of all types of feathers in demand had 
been available at these times, however, the industry would probably have 
felt a shortage of processing facilities. 


20 


Imports 

Import trends. —There has been a long-term upward trend in United 
States imports of crude bedding feathers (designated in trade statistics 
as "Crude feathers for beds"), because of an increasing demand for feather 
products and a decreasing domestic supply of waterfowl feathers. Imports 
have always consisted almost entirely of waterfowl feathers; the quantity 
of chicken bedding feathers imported is insignificant. Virtually all 
bedding feathers imported are in a crude condition because crude feathers 
have a favorable differential, as compared with processed feathers, in 
shipping costs. In addition to this substantial advantage in ocean ship¬ 
ping rates on crude feathers, the United States tariff on crude feathers 
was lower than that on processed feathers prior to December 11, 1950. 

Since that date, the duties on crude and processed feathers have been the 
same. Imports normally supply about 85 percent of United States consump¬ 
tion of waterfowl feathers. 

United States imports of crude feathers for beds, by principal sources, 
for representative years, are shown in table 3. Processed bedding feathers 
are not reported separately in iicport statistics, but imports are not 
large. 




21 


Table 3.—Crude feathers for beds: United States imports for consumption, 
by principal sources, specified years 1937 to 1950 and January-May 1951 


Country 

1937 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1948 

1949 1 / 

1950 1 / 

Jan,-May 

1951 y 




Quantity (1,000 pounds) 



Eastern Asia: 









China- 

2,803 

4,579 

7,931 

7,602 

7,326 

6,260 

5,035 

1,239 

Hong Kong- 

500 

77 

151 

382 

20 

38 

30 

262 

Other--- 

168 

220 

446 

383 

13 

116 

180 

473 

Total--- 

3,471 

4,876 

8,528 

8,367 

7,359 

6,4U 

5,245 

1,974 

Eastern Europe: 
Poland and 
Danzig- 

671 

242 

19 


268 

470 

486 

151 

Hungary- 

512 

474 

335 

3 

1,360 

783 

422 

110 

Czechoslovakia- 

U2 

23 

- 

- 

428 

246 

222 

71 

Soviet Union- 

8 

26 

32 

U5 

46 

81 

126 

- 

Yugoslavia- 

1 

4 

8 

- 

106 

56 

67 

15 

Rumania- 

30 

28 

25 

- 

254 

155 

22 

18 

Bulgaria- 

- 

40 

32 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Total- 

1,364 

837 

451 

148 

2,462 

1,791 

1,345 

365 

Western Europe: 









France- 

283 

439 

86 

34 

222 

137 

216 

86 

Germany - 

40 

38 

7 

3/ 

7 

36 

68 

23 

Italy- 

2 

35 

11 

4 

482 

239 

38 

52 

Belgium and 
Luxembourg- 

2 

11 



13 

24 

23 

34 

Netherlands- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

24 

3/ 

21 

4 

United Kingdom- 

129 

59 

292 

156 

51 

63 

19 

3/ 

Other— 

139 

5 

31 

106 

167 

26 

50 

7 

Total- 

595 

587 

427 

300 

966 

525 

435 

206 

Other areas. 









total--- 

26 

20 

49 

161 

70 

53 

73 

53 

All countries, 









total—- 

5,456 

6,320 

9,455 

8,976 

10,857 

8,783 

7,098 

2,598 


See footnotes at end of table. 














































Table 3.—Crude feathers for bedst United States imports for consumption, by 
by principal sources, specified years 1937 to 1950 and January-Ifey 1951—Con. 


Country 

1937 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1948 

1949 1/ 

1950 1/ 

I Jan.-J^y 

1 1951 y 




Foreign value (1,000 dollars) 



Eastern Asia: 









China--- 

1,001 

1,005 

1,974 

2,818 

3,163 

3,339 

4,122 

1,411 

Hong Kong- 

151 

16 

29 

127 

12 

32 

28 

366 

Other- 

65 

46 

89 

81 

3 

47 

105 

421 

Total— - 

1,217 

1,067 

2,092 

3,026 

3,178 

3,418 

4,255 

2', 197 

Eastern Europe: 
Poland and 
Danzig- 

695 

201 

10 


171 

- 383 

575 

232 

Hungary- 

475 

345 

278 

7 

967 

793 

672 

245 

Czechoslovakia- 

118 

19 

- 

. 

302 

251 

260 ■ 

135 

Soviet Union- 

3 

11 

19 

98 

95 

114 

169 

- 

Yugoslavia—•—— 

2 

3 

12 

- 

94 

61 

2U 

65 

Rumania- 

18 

12 

7 

- 

lU 

103 

19 

37 

Bulgaria---— 

- 

36 

19 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Total- 

1,311 

627 

> 345 

105 

1,743 

1,705 

1,909 

714 

Western Europe: 
France- 

267 

438 

68 

24 

257 

211 

526 

293 

Germany 2/- 

39 

31 

4 

4/ 

14 

91 

124 

110 

Italy- 

3 

27 

11 

4 

295 

159 

114 

154 

Belgium and 
Luxembourg- 

4 

4 



21 

16 

48 

72 

Netherlands- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

20 

4/ 

22 

6 

United Kingdom- 

69 

43 

131 

99 

44 

52 

25 

3 

Other— 

91 

5 

15 

61 

490 

13 

76 

29 

Total-- 

473 

548 

229 

188 

1,141 

542 

935 

667 

Other areas, 









total—---- 

16 

10 

26 

84 

55 

40 

51 

46 

All countries, 
total- 

3,017 

2,252 

2,692 

3,403 

6,117 

5,705 

7,150 

3,625 


1/ Preliminary. 

2/ Includes Austria, 1939-41. 
2/ Less than 500 pounds. 

4/ Less than $500. 


Source: Con^Diled from official statistics of the U. S. Department of Commerce. 














































23 


During the years immediately following World War I, the United States 
imported less than 1 million pounds of crude bedding feathers annually* 
Imports rose to about 2.2 million pounds a year in the early 1920's and 
remained at that level until 1934, when they began to increase sharply. 

In 1937, inports of crude bedding feathers amounted to 5.5 million pounds, 
with a foreign value of 3 million dollars, and in 1940, to 9.5 million 
pounds, valued at 2.7 million dollars. (The lower foreign value reported 
for 1940 was due primarily to the fact that in that year a larger .proportion 
of the inports came from China, which generally exports a less expensive 
type of feathers than those from Europe.) World War II cut off all im¬ 
portant sources of United States imports, and although efforts were made 
to develop secondary foreign sources, imports were very small, amounting 
in 1944 to only 347,000 pounds, valued at |393,000. In the postwar years 
accumulated domestic demand for waterfowl-feather articles brought inports 
of crude bedding feathers in 194B to their highest level—10.9 million 
poiinds, valued at 6.1 million dollars. Imports decreased after that year, 
dropping to 7.1 million pounds in 1950, but the value in that year—namely 
7.2 million dollars—was considerably greater than in 1948, the average 
unit value having risen from 56.9 cents per pound in 1948 to $1.01 per 
pound in 1950. Part of this increase in unit value was the result of the 
progressive rise in feather prices after the reentrance of Germany and 
other European consumers into the world market in 1948, but the major part 
of the increase resulted from the abrupt rise in feather prices in the 
last half of 1950, when difficulties were met in procuring sufficient 
quantities of feathers from China to fill the greatly increased United 


24 


States requirements for feathers occasioned by large military orders. 
Imports during January-May 1951 amounted to 2.6 million pounds, valued at 
3.6 million dollars. This was a slight decrease in quantity but a large 
increase in value compared with imports in the corresponding period of 
1950, when 2.8 million pounds, valued at 2.7 million dollars, entered. 

China has usually supplied about 70 percent of United States imports 
of crude feathers for beds. Hungary and Poland are the second and third 
most important sources, with large quantities coming also from France, 
Czechoslovakia, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Rumania. The small imports during 
World War II came principally from Argentina, the United Kingdom, and the 
Soviet Union. United States imports of bedding feathers from China usually 
contain from 15 to 18 percent down, roughly the normal percentage found on 
the bird, although significant quantities of 90-percent pure down are also 
received from China. Imports from Europe, on the other hand, almost 
invariably contain a very high percentage of down. Special problems re¬ 
lating to current iuports from China are discussed in a later section on 
procurement problems. 

Tariff status .—The current tariff rate on imported crude feathers 
for beds is 20 percent ad valorem, the rate originally specified in the 
Tariff Act of 1930. In the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 
signed at Geneva, Switzerland, in October 1947 the rate of duty on crude 
feathers was reduced to 10 percent ad valorem in negotiations with China, 
and this rate became effective on May 22, 194B. Upon China’s withdrawal 
from this agreement in 1950, the United States concessions made to China 
on feathers were withdrawn, and the duty on crude feathers was restored 



25 


to the original rate of 20 percent ad valorem, effective December 11, 

1950. Feathers, dressed, colored, or otherwise manufactured in any 
manner were originally dutiable under the Tariff Act of 1930 at 60 percent 
ad valorem, but, as a result of reductions in trade agreements, these 
feathers also are now dutiable at the rate of 20 percent ad valorem. As 
the United States must depend upon imports for the bulk of its supply 
of waterfowl feathers, and as most feathers have been imported crude, the 
tariff, rate has not been a major factor affecting the volume of imports. 
Exports 

For many years the United States has been a large exporter of crude 
chicken feathers. On some few occasions, domestic waterfowl feathers have 
been exported, but not in significant quantities„ 

United States exports of crude feathers during the 1930®s averaged 
approximately 6.8 million pounds, valued at about ^332,000, annually. The 
average unit value of exports during 1937-39 was about 5 cents per pound, 
compared with an average unit value of imports during the same period of 
about 45 cents per pound. The principal export markets were western 
European countries, particularly the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, and 
Norway. During the war, annual exports averaged only about 500,000 pounds, 
valued at approximately $85,000, most of which went to CanadSo Postwar 
exports (1946-50) have been less than half the prewar level in quantity, 
averaging annually 2.6 million pounds, but the value has averaged annually 
$ 561 , 000 . The average unit value of exports during 1943-50 was about 25 
cents per pound, whereas the average unit value of imports during this 
period was about 71 cents per pound. France, Denmark, and Canada have been 



26 


the principal postwar markets. United States exports of crude feathers 
by principal markets in recent representative years are shown in table 4. 
Prices 

There is no regularly published series of price quotations on feathers. 
The price of feathers from Europe varies with almost every individual ship¬ 
ment because there are no standard grades or mixtures in the European 
trade. Feathers from China, on the other hand, are sold in standard 
grades, and the prices of the various grades are uniform at any one time 
and well known throughout the market. 

In the United States, feathers from China usually dominate the market, 
and their price determines the general price structure. As a rule, crude 
waterfowl feathers from China are less expensive than domestic or European 
waterfowl feathers, although this does not always hold true, because of 
variations in quality.* 

The price of chicken feathers is relatively stable; such fluctuations 
as do appear are frequently reflections of larger changes in the price of 
waterfowl feathers. There is a very wide spread between the price of 
chicken feathers and the price of waterfowl feathers and down—especially 
down. 

The relative values of different kinds and grades of feathers are il¬ 
lustrated in table 5, which shows basic ceiling prices set by the Office 
of Price Administration in May 1943. These prices prevailed essentially 
unchanged for the duration of World War II. They were substantially higher 
than prewar prices, some being almost double the corresponding 1937-39 


average. 



27 


Table 4.—Crude feathers; United States exports of domestic merchandise, 
by principal markets, specified years 1937 to 1950 


Country 

1937 

1939 

1944 

1948 

1949 1 / 

1950 1 / 


Quantity (1,000 pounds) 

France- 

663 

154 

- 

' 469 

660 

918 

Canada 2/- 

113 

253 

270 

444 

522 

553 

Denmark- 

2,791 

2,974 

- 

724 

769 

522 

Italy- 

- 

4 

_ 

202 

157 

389 

Germany 3/- 

so 

- 

- 

1 

302 

169 

Belgiimi and Luxembourg- 

38 

44 

- 

38 

76 

67 

United Kingdom- 

4,053 

2,775 

- 

59 

10 

48 

Ireland- 

80 

64 

- 

7 

_ 

22 

Switzerland- 

- 

65 

- 

5 

139 

14 

Norway--- 

310 

478 

- 

51 

74 

- 

Sweden--- 

14 

66 

- 

- 

50 

- 

Union of South Africa—• 

22 

3 

- 

50 

12 

7 

All other- 

73 

40 

4 / 

46 

58 

30 

Total--- 

8,237 

6,920 

271 

2,096 

2,829 

2,739 


Val 

Lue (1,000 dollai 

's) 

France- 

37 

12 

— 

114 

230 

340 

Canada 2/- 

9 

26 

104 

109 

145 

125 

Denmark- 

146 

87 

- 

32 

15 

12 

Italy- 

- 

1 

- 

11 

16 

172 

Germany 3/- 

11 

- 

- 

3 

121 

123 

Belgium and Luxembourg- 

> 

2 

- 

3 

24 

31 

United Kingdom- 

240 

lU 

- 

7 

4 

59 

Ireland.--- 

5 

2 

- 

1 

- 

1 

Switzerland—•—---- 

- 

24 

- 

2 

42 

12 

Norway- 

21 

18 

- 

4 

1 

- 

Sweden- 

1 

3 

- 

-■ 

1 

- 

Union of South Africa— 

2 

5/ 

- 

13 

4 

1 

All other- 

10 

8 

5 / 

50 

52 

48 

Total- 

485 

297 

104 

349 

655 

924 


"ij Preliminary. 

2/ Includes Newfoundland and Labrador beginning 1950. 

3/ Includes Austria 1939-44. 

4 / Less tlian 500 pounds. 

5 / Less than $500. 

Source: Compiled from official statistics of the U. S. Department of 
Commerce. 




















































28 


Table 5o—Bedding feathers and downs Basic ceiling prices set by 
the Office of Price Administration in May 1943 


Kind 

Maximum price 
per pound 

Crude feathers 


Chicken and turkey: 


Prime colored body feathers -—— 

10,05 

Prime white body feathers —-- 

o07 

Butcher body feathers———- — —— 

,02 

Waterfowl: 


Prime domestic goose feathers— -- 

l<.37i 

Prime domestic duck feathers———— —-<»c— 

1,10 

XL Duck or XLDUX (Long Island duck feathers) — 

lol8^ 

Domestic duckling feathers-^— < —. 

c93i 

Chicago butcher goose and duck feathers—— - 

,77 

New York butcher goose and duck feathers----—— 

,55 

China goose feathers-^— - — -« — <— 

,77 

China duck feathers— 

,66 

Processed or manufactured feathers and down 


Chicken and turkey: 

13 

White———————————————-———---———--- 

a7i 

Waterfowl : 

Domestic and European goose feathers: 

5 38 

SidiElH f0£^'th©rs***"«**‘*“*«*^*"^^*»^*^‘*®* 

1,18 



JUCIX X V/XICX 

40 percent down, 60 percent small-feather mixture— 

0 

2.85 

Domescic and European duck feathers: 


H/n-fr'. . _ - - - _ _ . . 

4.84 

iJ\J Wll*" »_» au n*o-n. v arrcwa cki ^ « 3vw 

^hcx*s •*•’'*•*'•*_^_ ■- -1— — IMM- 1 _ ■ II IM 1 M T— — -I3f. 0.. »\ m» - - m\ -m ma.m 

Large feathers ----—— 

-LoUO 

.48 

40 percent down, 60 percent small-feather mixture— 

2.58 

China goose feathers: 

4.84 

1 nA 

Sm^l^feathers^ 


Xo vo 

.48 

40 percent down, 60 percent small-feather mixture— 

2.58 

China duck feathers: 


Sm^l^f^th^s 

07 


oy! 

c43 

40 percent dovm, 60 percent small-feather mixture—» 

2,30 


Sources Compiled from Office of Price Administration Maxfjrrum Price 
Regulation No« 318, effective Febo 5, 1943, and Amendment NOc 1 to 
Regulation ROo 318, effective May 15, 1943o 















29 


Prices of feathers immediately after the war were low relative to 
prices of other commodities, primarily because of the absence of the 
large European consuming countries from the market. Some grades sold 
at prices approximating the 1937-39 level. After 1943, however, when 
European consumers began to reenter the world market, prices started up¬ 
ward and have risen continuously since. International complications in 
Korea and China in 1950, with a resulting shortage of feathers, have 
caused prices of v/aterfowl feathers in the United States to rise to very 
high levels. Table 6 presents price ranges by quarters for three rep¬ 
resentative grades of feathers from China for the period January 1948 
to December 1950 and for January 1951. 


30 


Table 6,—Bedding feathers and down: Prices Coiof. New York City 
for three representative kinds of waterfowl feathers from China, 
by quarters, 1948 - 1930 , and January 1931 


Year 

and c^uarter 

NN Gray 
duck feathers 

GGS Gray 
goose feathers 

Gray 

duck down 


Per pound 

Per pound 

Per pound 

1948 ! 







January-March— 

} 0 . 29 -® 0.34 

J 0 . 34 -« 0,39 

$ 1 . 50 - 11.80 

April-June- 

, 28 - 

.33 

. 35 - 

.42 

1 . 50 - 

1.80 

July-September— 

. 32 - 

.35 

. 39 - 

.43 

1 . 60 - 

1.72 

October-December 

, 37 - 

.43 

. 40 - 

.51 

1 . 75 - 

2.00 

1949 : 







January-March-— 

. 40 - 

.43 

. 48 - 

.52 

1 . 90 - 

2,00 

April-June- 

, 38 - 

.40 

. 48 - 

.52 

1 . 80 - 

2.00 

July-S ept emb er— 

. 43 - 

.55 

. 51 - 

.60 

1 . 70 - 

2.35 

October-December 

, 31 - 

.58 

. 60 - 

.63 

2 . 25 - 

2.45 

1930 : 







January-March- 

. 52 - 

.59 

. 63 - 

.75 

2 . 30 ^ 

2.45 

April-June-- 

, 55 - 

.56 

. 62 - 

.71 

2 . 00 - 

2.25 

July-September— 

. 63 - 

.82 

. 62 - 

.97 

2 . 05 - 

3.10 

October-December 

. 81 - 

1.00 

. 90 - 

1.15 

2 . 75 - 

3.35 

1931 : 







January—-— 

1 . 05 - 

1.15 

1 , 10 - 

1.20 

3 . 25 - 

3.65 


Source; Compiled from official docianents of the U.S. Bureau of 
Customs. 













31 


Problems in C\irrent United States Supply and Procurement 

Since the United States depends principally upon imports for water- 
fowl feathers, and since the bulk of world collection is in countries 
within the Soviet sphere of influence, this country has a difficult 
problem in supplying its military needs for these feathers. During 
World War II all available supplies of waterfowl feathers in the United 
States were reserved for defense use, and processing plants and central¬ 
ized filling plants were maintained under Government control to assure 
procurement for military purposes. Even with these restrictions, the 
supply of waterfowl feathers was not sufficient to meet the requirements 
for filling sleeping bags for actual or potential use of troops in cold 
climates, though the number of troops actually stationed in cold areas 
was small. 

The Korean conflict and the preparedness program brought a sudden 
increase in the military demand for waterfowl feathers. In the fall 
of 1950 , these feathers were added to the list of items currently being 
stockpiled, and on April I 6 , 1951, National Production Authority Order 
M-56 again reserved for defense requirements the entire supply of new 
and used duck and goose feathers, except flight feathers with no natural 
curl. Surveys revealed, it was then announced, that the current supply 
of waterfowl feathers and down is insufficient to meet the demand for 
military sleeping bags and hospital pillows. In the event of a large- 
scale war, it is possible that the annual military demand for waterfowl 
feathers would exceed the greatest amount hitherto consumed in the 
United States in any year, and in that event, moreover, the quantity 


32 


of imports available would probably be much below normal, Sven though 
a general war does not occur the continuance of extensive defense prepa¬ 
rations may result in requirements for feathers which cannot be met 
owing to conditions in, or policies of, the Communist countries. 

Up to the present no unusual difficulties have been encountered in 
procuring waterfowl feathers from Europe, even from the "satellite” 
countries, although some importers complained during 1950 of being out¬ 
bid by German firms whose demand was rapidly^increasing. Great diffi¬ 
culties, however, have been experienced during recent months in obtaining 
feathers from China. Since the advent of the Communist regime there, 

I 

exports from that country have been under direct governmental control, 
which is said to have caused a smaller collection of feathers in China. 

In addition, the restrictive effects of international strife in the 
Orient began to be felt by the feather trade in the last half of 1950. 

By September of that year. United States imports of feathers shipped 
from Shanghai, usually the principal Chinese shipping port, had virtually 
ceased. Feathers from China entering the United States since then have 
come almost exclusively from Hong Kong, 

As a result of Communist China’s entry into the Korean conflict, 
the United States Treasury Department on December 17, 1950, froze all 
assets in the United States owned by Communist China or its nationals. 2/ 
After that date, transactions involving bank accounts, credits, and 
other assets in the United States owned by Communist China or nationals 

2 / Code of Federal Regulations. 1950 Cum. Supp, to 19A9 ed„j titip ^ 

ch. V, pt, 500. 




33 


of that country were forbidden, unless licensed by Foreign Assets Control 
of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. On March 7, 1951, the Depart- 
luent of the Treasury amended its initial regulations covering the control 
of these foreign assets to impose additional restrictions on the importa¬ 
tion of merchandise from Communist China, 

In retaliation against the United States freezing order, the Chinese 
Communist Government forbade exportation from China of goods destined for 
the United States. Aside from this, the Communist regime inaugurated a 
policy of barter trade in certain Chinese export commodities, feathers 
being one of them. These commodities are to be traded only in exchange 
for machinery and similar goods needed by China. It is reported that 
China has completed such barter arrangements, involving feathers, with 
eastern Germany, and is negotiating similar arrangements with other 
eastern European countries. 


'y After March 7, 1951, merchandise arriving in the United States from 
any country, if the country of origin of such merchandise is China (ex¬ 
cept Formosa), is not permitted entry until a specific license from 
Foreign Assets Control, Department of the Treasury, is presented. In 
general, the Department of the Treasury denies applications for license 
to import merchandise in which a Chinese interest has existed since 
December 17, 1950, the effective date of the freezing order with respect 
to China. Exceptions may be made when merchandise is of sufficient 
importance to the United States to warrant its admittance notwithstanding 
any Chinese interest,as is the case with waterfowl feathers. The Depart¬ 
ments of Defense and Commerce advise the Department of the Treasury with 
regard to what merchandise may fall into this category. The Department 
of the Treasury presumes that there has been Chinese interest since 
December 17, 1950, in any goods of Chinese origin not imported into the 
United States by March 7. To overcome the presumption, it is necessary 
to present to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York specific and substan¬ 
tial evidence tracing all details of ownership and interest in goods 
offered for importation. 



34 


The Department of the Treasury's freezing order and the Chinese 
Government's retaliatory restrictions have greatly hampered the trade in 
feathers. In spite of the heavy military demand in the United States and 
unprecedentedly high prices for feathers in this country, United States 
imports of feathers decreased from 877,000 pounds in December 1950 to 
306,000 pounds in January 1951. Monthly imports have increased aLmost 
steadily since then, however, as certain procurement and payment dif¬ 
ficulties were partially overcome. By the end of May 1951 a total of 2.6 
million pounds had been imported, 1.2 million pounds (about 47 percent) of 

wliich 'came from China. China has normally supplied about 70 percent of 
% 

imports. 

Satisfactory substitutes for waterfowl feathers are available for all 
important civilian needs and for most military needs except sleeping bags. 
Chicken feathers, of which there is an adequate domestic supply, can replace 
waterfowl feathers in all civilian pillows, and, if necessary, in military 
hospital pillows. Cotton, wool, kapok, milkweed fiber, and foam rubber are 
substitutes for feathers in various uses, though the supply of these mater¬ 
ials for filling purposes probably would be curtailed in a total war., 

Filling military sleeping bags is the only important use of waterfowl 
feathers for which no other material is a really satisfactory substitute, 
but the requirements for this purpose alone are at present greatly in excess 
of available supplies. Because of the shortage during World War II, every 
known substitute was tested and none was found satisfactory for sleeping 
bags. The best substitute—though far from satisfactory—is curled chicken 
feathers mixed with waterfowl feathers and down, and this mixture was used 


35 


during the war. Renovated, or used, feathers also were put in sleeping 
hags during that period, and are being used today to augment supplies of 
new feathers, although in normal times the use of second-hand feathers is 
regarded unfavorably and is forbidden by the bedding laws of many States. 

There is virtually no possibility that domestic production of new 
waterfowl feathers can be increased significantly. Thus if the demand 
which is in prospect for the immediate future is to be met, it will be met 
only by the entry of large imports. In the past United States imports 
have come mainly from China, and secondarily from eastern European coun¬ 
tries, but the quantity imported recently from China has been notably 
smaller, as stated above, than in the period prior to the Korean conflict. 
The prospect is for continued uncertainty with reference to iirports from 
China, although imports might conceivably increase in the event of an 
armistice in Korea, followed by reduced political tension between the 
United States and China. 

Should inports from China continue at an abnormally low level, the 
effort would probably be made to obtain increased imports from eastern 
European countries. The success of these efforts would be determined 
largely by both political and economic developments. Since the govern¬ 
ments of most of the eastern European countries are within the range 
of influence of the Soviet Government, it is possible that the same factors 
that resulted in a reduction in Chinese exports to the United States might 
reduce exports from eastern European countries as well. Moreover, the 
diversion to the United States of a substantially larger proportion of 
the eastern European waterfowl-feather output could be accomplished only 


36 


if feather consumption in Germany and Europe generally were greatly cur¬ 
tailed. 

United States supplies may also be supplemented by larger imports 
from some Asiatic countries which normally have been rather minor sources 
of United States imports (such as Taiwan, Siam, Indochina, and British 
Malaya). The quantity available from these sources, however, is limited. 

If, despite all efforts to obtain adequate supplies from abroad, total 
imports are drastically curtailed, the most promising source of waterfowl 
feathers for essential military use would probably be the collection of 
pillows and other bedding articles containing these feathers from homes 
throughout the United States. 






























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